The Changing Forest Management Context in India

The purpose of this Methods Manual is to suggest selected research tools that Forest Departments (FDs), NGOs, and university researchers might use to assist communities in developing effective forest management systems. In order for planners to design policies and programs supporting community management of natural forests, they will require better information regarding the diverse ecological, institutional, and economic features of Indian forests. Rapid diagnostic studies within each region which examine local management problems and potential will help to meet this need.

There is a growing recognition that sustainable forest management necessitates a meaningful involvement of forest communities. In some countries, the extensive logging and forest clearing conducted over the past thirty years have created vast areas of degraded natural forest and high degrees of social disruption and conflict between rural communities and FDs. While communities generally have few or no formal rights to these public lands, they are often driven to exploit them -- further leading to progressive degradation. Many Asian nations have targeted these areas for extensive replanting with the establishment of fast-growing number and pulpwood species, however these programs have high replanting costs, are staff intensive, and can affect only a small proportion of the degraded forest area.

For years some foresters, ecologists, and social scientists have maintained that degraded natural forests in south and southeast Asia could regenerate rapidly if protected. In India it is estimated that 35 to 50 million hectares of disturbed natural forest could experience significant increases in biomass and biodiversity if strategically protected (see Figure 1). Communities living in or near natural forests could protect them if clearly authorized by the government, providing the economic returns would compensate them for their opportunity costs. Recent experiences with such programs from a number of Indian states demonstrate that FDs can successfully develop management agreements with communities which benefit both parties and result in rapid increases in biomass, genetic diversity, forest productivity, and more equitable resource distribution.

Cases from the Asia region indicate that poor management of public forest lands is often tied to conflicts over resource rights and utilization that lead to unsustainable exploitation. Management systems are needed which can minimize social conflict, utilize natural forests on a sustainable basis to maximize the flow of important products to communities, and generate income and employment opportunities.

In India, management problems frequently arise over resources that are in high demand and under increasing use pressures. In order to reorient forest management strategies to become more locally-responsive and ecologically sustainable, certain generic problems and demands in forest areas will need to be addressed. Some of the most common forest management issues that lead to social conflict and unsustainable use are outlined below.

Fuelwood Headloading

In many forest communities in India, commercial fuelwood headloading represents an important source of cash for low income families, especially many of India's poorest women. In addition, it is estimated that rural populations on the Subcontinent require 133 million tons of fuelwood annually for their subsistence energy needs. Commercial headloading is a major cause of forest disturbance. Collectors tend to overexploit, not just because of their numbers, but also due to their methods of cutting and collection. Where headloaders have no usufruct security or incentives to harvest sustainably, fuelwood tends to be gathered intensively at the nearest open access site, overutilizing those resources until they are exhausted.

A complete ban on commercial fuelwood headloading would be nearly impossible to enforce, and would displace millions while causing major market shortages. Forest ecosystems can generate fuelwood sustainably, but varying production levels under different natural succession and silvicultural management conditions must be understood first. Community-based regulatory mechanisms also need to be established to control access and ensure that exploitation does not exceed sustainable levels.

Bamboo Basket-Making

Increasingly in India, rural artisans face difficulties in obtaining a sufficient, high quality supply of forest produce and fair prices for their products. Of the estimated 3 million tons of bamboo harvested each year in India, as much as one third are used by hundreds of thousands of villagers engaged in bamboo cottage industries. Yet production, supply, processing and marketing systems are often constrained by poor management, leading to lower quality goods, low productivity, and low wage rates for collectors and producers. Participatory management systems are particularly tailored to address the needs of such forest-dependent user groups who require a stable and continuous supply of quality raw materials based on a sustainable harvesting system.

Livestock Management

India possesses the world's largest livestock population, including 15% of the earth's cattle, which play a key role in the rural ecosystem for milk, draft power, and dung. Yet since the 1950's, non-forest common property has decreased over 30%, placing additional pressures for fodder and grazing on forest lands. Overgrazing of livestock and excessive burning to promote grass growth are commonly seen as two of the major causes of disturbance to Indian forests. Both processes typically suppress regeneration of the forest. Grazing, however, does not always damage tree saplings, especially if they have reached a certain age and height. Controlled grazing may actually stimulate grass growth and increase the effective nutrient yield. Fire can also increase grass productivity, and in some cases, facilitate the germination of tree seeds.

The timing, location and intensity of grazing pressure on forest lands depends upon many factors, including the role of livestock in the agrarian economy and the availability of alternative sources of fodder and pasturage. One solution to forest and pasture land overexploitation is to completely stop open grazing and shift to stall-feeding. However, this strategy depends on human labor to cut and carry fodder, and requires a strong community will to establish controls through fencing or patrolling, fines, and rules. In some parts of India, pastoral nomads migrate vast distances to traditional grazing areas and their practices and needs should also be considered in developing improved management systems.

In terms of fodder supply, successful forest regeneration may have the negative effect of reducing grass growth due to closure of the tree canopy. Hence, which grazing regime is best suited for a particular JIM site will need to be determined by the interplay of ecological and socioeconomic factors, local traditional and scientific knowledge, and the capacity of the community protection group to enforce a particular strategy for fodder production and controlled forest access.

Leaf Harvesting

Forests provide mulch and green manure for agriculture. If these nutrients were replaced with chemical fertilizers, it would cost crores of Rupees and still not provide the organic materials so important for healthy soil composition. The use of green manures is especially important in the hilly regions of peninsular India as well as the Himalayas, where lopped leaves or leaf litter are often used as bedding for cattle and then converted into manure for use on the farm. Lopping branches and leaves to provide fodder to livestock during winter is also a common practice. The leaves of dozens of tree species are also collected for bidi making, leaf plates, medicinals, and human consumption. In India each year, millions of tons of forest leaves are collected annually by the nation's rural communities.

When nutrients and organic matter are continuously removed from the forest floor, at a certain threshold the forest becomes adversely affected. While heavy lopping may retard tree and shrub growth, some pruning may actually accelerate increases in stem size, foliage, and fruit and seed productivity. Ultimately, Forest Departments and communities will need to improve their understanding regarding optimal harvesting and management techniques for sustaining valuable leaf production.

Commercial Timber

Over the past centuries, India's forest lands have generated a steady stream of timber profits, primarily to government, contractors, and local elites. As the nation's forest lands have diminished in area and quality through growing use and development pressures, national planners and senior foresters have attempted to slow exploitation, culminating with the national logging ban of 1986. There is some agreement that the nation's natural forests will not be able to play the same primary role of timber and pulp supplier that they have historically, and that the sources for these products must increasingly shift to private woodIots. At the same time, under effective management regimes a sustainable yield of timber, poles, and pulpwood is possible, especially to meet local needs.

While many forest areas possess management Working Plans, they tend to be based on outdated or inaccurate data and often assume the goal of maximizing timber productivity and revenue generation. In areas where the FD has earlier established Forest Labor Cooperative Societies (FLCSs), village members have lost employment opportunities as a result of the logging ban, or are finding ways to continue their activities, causing further damage to the forest. FD staff need to work with community members involved in the timber extraction industry to reach an agreement on the structure of an effective timber management system. Sustainable timber management systems, however, will not be established until foresters and communities have better information regarding the viability of current extraction levels and its impact on forest regeneration, as well as timber supply and demand for both local and commercial needs. Since current institutional management mechanisms frequently fail to ensure sustainable yields, new organizational arrangements need to be designed through participatory research with the concerned parties.

The five management problems described above need to be assessed in terms of their ecological, institutional, and economic dimensions. Figure 3 illustrates the relationships between thematic, interdisciplinary research questions dealing with a range of important forest management issues. In the following parts of the Manual, research tools will be presented which can provide information to design a more sustainable and productive management regime, responding to local human ecological needs.

Figure 3:

Management Issues and Ecological, Institutional and Economic Research Questions